In Vayikra 8:8, Moshe then attaches the entire framework of stones (a distinct object) onto the embroidered square of the Choshen.
How did the divination work?
Prophecy
According to Rambam, when asked a question, the priest would get divine inspiration, look at the Choshen, and via prophecy see certain letters from the engraved names protrude to spell a reply. According to him, the letters on the stones themselves did not physically shine or pop out and there was no supernatural component to the Choshen.
Illumination
Josephus, in contrast, implies that the stones might not have been used for general questions but only to foretell victory in battle. He suggests that when heading towards war, the stones would shine brightly to indicate that HaShem's presence was within the nation. One might also suggest, as above, that when asked a question, various letters in the stones were illuminated to spell a response.
Use in Second Temple period – According to Rambam, though the Urim and Tummim still existed in Second Temple times, as they were part of the Choshen and necessary to complete the priestly garb, they no longer played a divining role. This resulted from the lesser level of the priests of the time, for only one who had the Divine spirit (רוח הקודש) rest upon them could attain the Divine inspiration necessary to answer the nation's questions.
What is the relationship between the Urim and Tumim? This position would suggest that there is no difference between the Urim and Tummim. When the Urim is mentioned alone, it is simply an abbreviation.
Definite article – HaKetav VeHaKabbalah suggests that the Urim and Tummim are referred to with a definite article because they indeed refer back to something known, the Choshen stones which have been spoken about previously.
Philosophical motivations? It is possible that Rambam's rejection of the opinion that the Urim and Tummim consisted of Divine names relates to his discomfort with the masses' belief in and use of magical amulets "empowered" by Divine names (Moreh Nevukhim 1:61). According to him, the Urim and Tummim are totally removed from any magical component, and work purely via prophecy.
Astrological Signs
The Urim and Tummim referred to forms of various astrological objects, such as the stars and constellations.
SOURCES: Ibn Ezra, Ralbag
What types of astrological signs?
- Ibn Ezra is intentionally obscure but claims that the Urim were made of gold and silver, perhaps implying that one was meant to represent the sun and the other the moon. He further alludes to the twelve constellations, perhaps what he thinks the Tummim represented. As such, it seems that according to him, the Urim and Tummin might have functioned as a sort of astrolabe, a model of the celestial spheres.
- Ralbag explains similarly, explicitly suggesting that the Urim refer to images of the stars, while the Tummim refer to forms of other celestial objects and their movers, including their prime mover, HaShem. According to him, then, the latter was presumably alluded to via some type of writing and not via a physical image.
Process of divination – Both Ibn Ezra and Ralbag believe that HaShem gives power to the celestial spheres to control the terrestrial ones. Thus, a proper understanding of the stars can reveal future fate. This, though, is an imperfect science, as that fate might be overturned by HaShem. Ralbag suggests that, as such, focusing on each of the Urim and Tummim facilitated attaining knowledge of the future - either via astrology or via prophecy.
Difference between the Urim and Tummim – According to Ralbag, since the Urim related only to the stars, even one who was not a prophet could attain knowledge of the future by studying them. This, though, was accurate only for questions related to the immediate future, where time did not allow for one's fate to change. The knowledge granted by the Tummim, however, relied on full prophecy, as it related to meditating on the Prime Mover, HaShem, who can overturn the decrees of the stars. He, therefore, suggests that verses which speak of someone consulting only the Urim imply that the user was not at a high enough level to receive prophecy and could not access the knowledge granted by focusing on the Tummim. He was forced to rely on the astrological data gained from the Urim, which sufficed, but only if the question was of immediate relevance.
Meaning of name – The name Urim, from the word "אור", relates to the fact that these represent various luminaries. Ralbag implies that Tummim relates to perfection and completion, perhaps because the knowledge gained by focusing on it was more complete.
Plural language – Ibn Ezra suggests that the plural language of "הָּאוּרִּ ים " and "הַתֻּמִּים " supports his position as it implies that there were multiple objects placed in the Choshen.
" םיִּמֻּתַה תֶאְו םיִּרוּאָה תֶא ןֶשֹחַה לֶא ןֵּת יַו" – Ibn Ezra points to this verse, too, as support, noting that it implies that Moshe inserted distinct objects into the Choshen.
No description in Shemot 28 and no execution in Shemot 39 – Ramban questions this approach, noting that if the objects were made of gold and silver, as claimed by Ibn Ezra, then they required skilled craftsmanship and the manner of their creation should have been described. Ibn Ezra might respond that the secrets of the celestial spheres were not known to the artisans and thus only Moshe could form the Urim and Tummim. As such, there was no need to describe them in the commands to the craftsmen.
Definite article – It is not clear why the Urim and Tummim are referred to with a definite article.
Color of the robe of the Ephod – Ralbag notes that the robe upon which the Ephod and Choshen with the Urim and Tummim rested was sky blue, supporting this position that all was supposed to allude to the celestial spheres.
Divining via the Ephod – Ibn Ezra suggests that others might have made Ephods similar to that made by Moshe and even though they did not include the original Urim and Tummim, if the priest was familiar with the Urim and Tummim made by Moshe, he might imagine it and be able to respond to a questioner with the Ephod alone.
Lottery
The Urim and Tummim functioned as a lottery. This opinion subdivides regarding the lottery dynamics:
Alphabet
The Urim and Tummim consisted of small pieces of wood or metal on which were inscribed the letters of the alphabet. When drawn randomly from the Choshen they would form words.
SOURCES: Shadal, Hoil Moshe
Meaning of name – Shadal suggests that each of the letters of the alphabet might have been given unique names, with aleph referred to as "אור" (appropriate for the first letter) and taf as "תם " (fitting for the final letter). All the letters together, from aleph to taf, were called "Urim and Tummim".
No description in Shemot 28 and no execution in Shemot 39 – Since the letter tablets did not need to be crafted specially and were not made by Betzalel, there is no description of them in the commands of Shemot 28 and no mention of them in the verses detailing the fulfillment of the commands in Shemot 39.
"םיִּמֻּתַה תֶאְו םיִּרוּאָה תֶא ןֶשֹחַה לֶא ןֵּת יַו" – Shadal suggests that the fact that Moshe first inserted the Urim and Tummim into the pocket of the Choshen during the consecration ceremony implies that they were not a fixed part if it and were meant to be removed periodically. Moreover, the fact that the Choshen was folded to form a pocket further implies that it was meant to serve as a holder. As such, viewing the Urim and Tummim as individual letter blocks matches the description.
How did the divination work? Shadal suggests that the priest would randomly take out one letter at a time and Divine providence would thereby provide an appropriate response to whatever question was asked. This theory allows for even intricate responses to questions, as all the letters of the alphabet were available to spell out the message.
Definite article – If the Urim and Tummin is simply another name for the alphabet, then it was a known entity, explaining the presence of the definite article.
Binary Lots
The Urim and Tummim were two objects which served as lots, one representing a positive response and the other a negative one (or one representing one possible outcome and the other its alternative).
SOURCES: several modern scholars
Biblical evidence – U. Cassuto points to Shemuel I 14:38-42 as support for this approach. Shaul says, "הָּבָּה תָּמִּים ", understood to be an allusion to the Urim and Tummim, but then the verses appear to describe a lottery, employing language such as "לכד and "נפל", elsewhere connected to lots being cast. Cassuto further notes that a survey of the other verses in which the Urim and Tummim or the Ephod are consulted shows that queries were always worded in a way which left only two possible answers, supporting the theory that the divination involved a binary lottery.
Septuagint – Several modern scholars support this approach by turning to the Septuagint's version of Shemuel I 14:41, which expands upon the Masoretic text and reads: יְהוָּה אֱלֹהֵּי יִּשְרָּאֵּל למה לא ענית את עבדך היום -וַיֹאמֶר שָּאוּל אֶל אם יש בי או ביונתן בני העון הזה ה' אלהי ישראל הבה אורים ואם ישנו העון הזה בעמך ישראל הָּבָּה תָּמִּים . In the Septuagint, Shaul appears to be suggesting that if he and Yonatan are guilty the "ארים " lot should fall to them, whereas if they are innocent (and the nation guilty), the "תמים " lot would instead fall to them.
Meaning of name – In light of the Septuagint text, Tur Sinai and others suggest that "אורים " might relate to the word "ארור" (cursed), connoting guilt or a negative outcome, and "תמים " to innocence, or a positive outcome.
How did the divination work? The exact dynamics of the lot are unclear. According to Tur Sinai, each of the Urim and Tummim was itself a lot, and when asked a question, the priest would take one out of the Choshen pocket, providing either a negative or positive response. If one needed a more complicated reply, follow-up binary questions would be necessary.
" ֶשֹחַה לֶא ןֵּת יַון אֶת הָאוּרִּ ים וְאֶת הַתֻּמִּים " – Moshe's placing of the Urim and Tummim inside the Choshen supports the idea that they were concrete objects that could be inserted and removed at will.
No response? Given the nature of a lottery, especially a binary one, verses like Shmuel I 28:4 which state that someone was not answered via the Urim and Tummim are somewhat difficult. It would seem that as long as a lot was drawn, one would automatically receive either a positive or negative response. This had led some to suggest that perhaps there was a third lot which represented a lack of response. It is not given a name, as it held no message.
Ancient near eastern parallels – Divination was common in the ancient near east, and the casting of lots was one method employed to this end. For example, a psephomantic tablet from Assur (LKA 137) attests to a ritual of casting of lots by means of two dice or stones, one referred to as "the desirable stone" and the other as "the undesirable stone". Several points of contact with the Urim and Tummim have been suggested: the practice took place in the presence of deities, required a "yes" or "no" answer, made use of objects drawn from a garment, and involved a "שאלה" or "sa'alu".
A concession to human needs? U. Cassuto suggests that use of the Urim and Tummim might have been a concession to the nation's natural desire to know the Divine will (and their familiarity with such divination practices in surrounding cultures). Though most forms of divination are prohibited by the Torah, HaShem allowed these lots in a very limited manner; only a leader could ask the priest questions and these were of national import. However, they were never an ideal.
No description in Shemot 28 and no execution in Shemot 39
- If the Urim and Tummim consisted of merely two stones or dice, there was nothing special for the craftsmen to create and thus no need to describe them.
- Cassuto, instead, explains that the lack of mention might stem from Torah's discomfort with the notion of divination. As the Urim and Tummim was a concession to human needs but not an ideal, Torah used as little detail as it could in discussing them.
End of use – U. Cassuto notes that there is no mention of using the Urim and Tummim after the reign of David and that it might have already been early in the Monarchic period when their usage stopped (long before the Second Temple era). He suggests that divining via the Urim and Tummim might have been discouraged, as it was not a desired method of ascertaining HaShem's will. As such, as soon as the nation developed enough spiritually, such divination was discontinued.
Borders
In addition to their divining function, the Urim and Tummim contained a list of the borders of the tribal inheritances.
SOURCES: R. Yosef Bekhor Shor
Meaning of name – R"Y Bekhor Shor suggests that "אורים " refers to regions of land, pointing to the word's usage in Yeshayahu 24:15 (where it is parallel to "the islands of the sea") and to the name "Ur Kasdim", "the land of the Chaldeans". The word "תמים " refers to borders or ends, as תם relates to something which is completed. As such, he suggests that the Urim and Tummim were a listing of the regions and borders of each tribe's future inheritance.
" םיִּמֻּתַה תֶאְו םיִּרוּאָה תֶא ןֶשֹחַה לֶא ןֵּת יַו" – These borders were inserted by Moshe into the Choshen, with each tribe's inheritance placed by the stone which bore its name.
No description in Shemot 28 and no execution in Shemot 39 – As the Urim and Tummim was not a work of craftsmanship, their creation is not described.
"וְנָשָא אַהֲרֹן אֶת מִּשְפַט בְנֵּי יִּשְרָאֵּל" – R"Y Bekhor Shor notes that the verse defines the function of the Urim and Tummim as "carrying judgment" since the lists of borders found in the Choshen ensured that later no one argued about the inheritances, with all recognizing that this was a judgment from HaShem. [He suggests that in the time of Yehoshua, lots were cast to define the tribal borders and these were then checked against the list in the Choshen. When everything matched, no one could argue.]
"וְשָאַל לוֹ בְמִּשְפַט הָאוּרִּ ים... עַל פִּיו יֵּצְאוּ וְעַל פִּיו יָבֹאוּ" – This approach might suggest that this verse (Bemidbar 27:21) which speaks of Yehoshua consulting the Urim via Elazar, refers not to asking whether to go to war (as is commonly understood) but to checking the borders mentioned there when dividing the land. "Going and coming", then, refers not to embarking and returning from battle, but going to and entering one's tribal plot.
Divination? As Shemuel I 28 explicitly refers to the Urim in connection with divination and cannot possibly refer to tribal borders, R"Y Bekhor Shor must posit that they had more than one function, and that they were also used as a means to consult the Divine. He notes that in times of war or need, letters would protrude from the Choshen stones to answer the nation's questions. However, he does not elaborate as to what facilitated such divination and how it was connected to the Urim or the list of tribal borders.
